Testing Infant Products
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LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
CONSULTING
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
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Airflow
Firmness
Carbon Dioxide Rebreathing
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LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
CONSULTING
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
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Airflow
Firmness
Carbon Dioxide Rebreathing
Our testing lab is equipped to evaluate airflow, firmness and carbon dioxide rebreathing in a range of infant products
We provide testing and guidance to manufacturers as new infant products are developed to meet safety requirements
Materials and composites used in infant products can be evaluated for their effect on infant respiration.
We develop advanced testing instruments to measure and model the effects of infant products on respiration.
Our test lab uses a universal infant face probe at a force of 10 Newtons (2.2 pounds) and a flow rate of 2 LPM. Pressure differential across the bedding sample is a measure of airflow resistance.
Flat infant products like mattresses can be tested using the industry-standard Firmness Tester. Other products are tested for force vs. displacement using the universal infant face probe.
A breathing machine is used to simulate infant respiration. Carbon dioxide gas is metered into the lungs to simulate infant CO2 generation and CO2 the breathing circuit is measured using a CO2 analyzer.
What is suffocation?
Suffocation is the process of being deprived of air or oxygen, leading to unconsciousness or death. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including a lack of available oxygen, physical obstruction of the airways, or a toxic environment that interferes with normal breathing such as carbon dioxide rebreathing.
What is rebreathing?
In infants, carbon dioxide (CO2) rebreathing can be a serious concern, as their small size and delicate respiratory system make them more susceptible to the effects of elevated CO2 levels. Infants who sleep in an environment with poor ventilation, or who are placed face-down on soft surfaces such as a bed or couch, may be at risk of rebreathing exhaled CO2. This can lead to a condition known as sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), which is a leading cause of death in infants under the age of one. To reduce the risk of CO2 rebreathing and SID, it is recommended that infants sleep on their back on a firm, flat surface, and that their sleeping environment be well-ventilated.
What is breathability?
Many suppliers make claims about ‘breathability’ of their infant products, implying that the suffocation risk has been designed out of the product.
However, ‘breathability’ of fabric or surfaces is a confusing term for parents and suppliers and requires further definition and restriction. It is often used to refer to wicking/moisture removing capacity for material used in sports clothing—and does not directly relate to the safety of the item. Breathing requires BOTH the passive indrawing of fresh oxygenated air as well as unimpeded expiration and clearance of CO2. There is currently no testing standard to determine whether a fabric/surface/item is ‘breathable’ in terms of infant respiration. Therefore, the term ‘breathability’ has deliberately not been used here.
Should infant products be soft and cuddly?
Because infants are soft and cuddly, it would be logical to assume that infant products should also be soft. Babies are vulnerable and parents are protective, so parents need good advice on the kind of products to avoid. AVOID SOFT PRODUCTS. Soft crib bumpers have been banned in the US. Advice from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) is to place the infant in the crib on their back with no blanket, pillow, toys, pets or any other objects in the crib. Soft surfaces can promote a rebreathing hazard.
Should a crib mattress be soft or firm?
Small infants placed on their back may not start to roll over until they are a few months old. Once they can roll onto their tummy, their face can engage the mattress. The mattress, sheet and any mattress protector should be firm and tight so that the infant’s face cannot become enveloped.
Advice for manufacturers - from Australia
Best Practice Guide for the Design of Safe Sleeping Environments, A GUIDE FOR INDUSTRY TO REDUCE THE RISK OF DEATH AND LIFE-THREATENING INJURIES IN INFANTS
Respiration is initiated by the downward movement of the diaphragm. This movement generates negative pressure inside the chest. As air is drawn in, the ribs expand passively. Infants can suffocate if there is an obstruction (partial or complete) to diaphragmatic movement, air inflow or chest wall expansion.
Respiration is controlled by biofeedback loops that respond primarily to a rise in carbon dioxide levels.
Suffocation refers to deprivation of oxygen entering the body whereas asphyxia refers to deprivation of oxygen being delivered to the tissues. The causes of suffocation and asphyxia are largely the same, except that asphyxia can be caused by stopping blood flow (which delivers oxygen) independently of respiration (which replenishes oxygen supply).
Circulation of blood requires squeezing and refilling of the heart and unimpeded flow to all organs but especially the brain (which controls vital body functions). Blood circulation can be impaired due to rises in intrathoracic (chest cavity) or abdominal pressure or occlusion of arteries that feed organs (high pressure) or veins that drain organs (low pressure). Occlusion of cerebral blood flow (through direct occlusion of neck arteries) results in rapid unconsciousness
and cessation of vital functions.
1. J. N. Carleton, A.M. Donoghue, and W. K. Porter, “Mechanical Model Testing of Rebreathing Potential in Infant Bedding Materials,” Archives of Disease in Childhood 78, no. 4 (April 1998): 323–328, https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.78.4.323
2. M. D. Leshner, “Forensic Engineering Evaluation of CO2 Re-breathing in Infant Bedding Materials,” Journal of the National Academy of Forensic Engineers 29, no. 2 (December 2012): 23–30, https://doi.org/10.51501/jotnafe.v29i2.771
3. M. R. Maltese and M. D. Leshner, “Carbon Dioxide Rebreathing Induced by Crib Bumpers and Mesh Liners Using an Infant Manikin,” BMJ Paediatrics Open 3, no. 1 (April 2019): e000374, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjpo-2018-000374
4. M.D. Leshner, “Thermal Rebreathing Model for Evaluation of Infant Bedding Materials”, ASTM Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Volume 50, Issue 3, 25 February 2022. DOI: 10.1520/JTE20210736
5. Best Practice Guide for the Design of Safe Sleeping Environments, A GUIDE FOR INDUSTRY TO REDUCE THE RISK OF DEATH AND LIFE-THREATENING INJURIES IN INFANTS. https://www.productsafety.gov.au/about-us/publications/best-practice-guide-for-the-design-of-safe-infant-sleeping-environments
6. Erin M. Mannen, et. al, “Pillows Product Characterization and Testing”, https://www.cpsc.gov/s3fs-public/Pillows-Product-Characterization-and-Testing-Final-Report-with-CPSC-Staff-Statement.pdf?VersionId=omVlmybShqzcQM4GQzepWSlz.s_iOxNC
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